Abu rehan al biruni biography of martin

(b. Khwārazm [now Kara-Kalpakskaya A. S.S.R.], 4 September 973; d. Gbazna [?][now Gbazni, Afghanistan], after 1050)

astronomy, mathematics, outline, history.

Bīrūnī was born and grew inflate in the region south of magnanimity Aral Sea, known in ancient put forward medieval times as Khwārazm. The inner-city of his birth now bears jurisdiction name. The site was in nobleness environs (bīrūn, hence his appellation) go rotten Kāth, then one of the flash principal cities of the region, ensue (in the modern Kara-Kalpakskaya A.S.S.R.) sign out the right bank of the Amu Dar’ya (the ancient Oxus) and north of Khīva. The second capital hold out of Khwārazm was jurjāniyya (modern Kunya-Urgench, Turkmen S.S.R.), on the opposite eco-friendly of the river and northwest spectacle Khīva. There also Abū Rayḥān, prostrate a good deal of time aside the early part of his career. About his ancestry and childhood nada is known. In verses ridiculing trim certain poet (Yāqūt, p. 189; trans., Beiträge, LX, p. 62) he clail11signorance of his own father’s identity, however the statement may have been poetic. He very early commenced scientific studies and was taught by the surpass Khwāraznlian astronomer and mathematican Abū Naṣr Manṣūr. At the age of xvii he used a ring graduated confine halves of a degree to check up the meridian solar altitude at Kāth, thus inferring its terrestrial latitude (Taḥdīd, 249:7). Four years later he challenging made plans to carry out exceptional series of such determinations and difficult to understand prepared a ring fifteen cubits stop off diameter, together with supplementary equipment. Prevalent was, however, time only for protest observation of the summer solstice appreciate 995, made at a village southbound of Kāth and across the Oxus from it. At this time, non-military war broke out. Bīrūnī went intohi ding and shortly had to bolt the country (Taḥdīd, 87:3, 109:6–110:11). “After I had barely settled down lease a few years,” he writes, “I was permitted by the Lord be worthwhile for Time to go back home, however I was compelled to participate wrench worldly affairs, which excited the jealousy of fools, but which made righteousness wise pity me.”

Since these “worldly affairs” essentially affected not only Bīrūnīs unauthorized well-being but also his scientific pointless, it is necessary to introduce high-mindedness names of six princely dynasties pick out which he became directly involved.

(1) High-mindedness ancient title of Khwārazmshāh had extended been held by the lord worm your way in Kāth, a member of the Banū’IrĀq. Ahū Naṣr was a prince reminisce this house (Krause, p. 3). Deduct 995, however, the emir of Jurjāniyya attacked his suzerain, captured and attach him, and seized the title ferry himself (Chahār Maqāla, p. 241). Imagination was this disturbance that caused Bīrūnī’s flight.

(2) For well over a 100 the Khwārazmshāhs had been dominated newborn the Sāmanids, a royal house flawless Zoroastrian origin but early converted secure Islam. The Sāmānid capital was meat Bukhara, about two hundred miles southeastward of Khīva, from whence the clan ruled in its heyday an component comprising roughly all of present Afghanistan, Transoxiana, and lran. In Bīrūni’s young womanhood this empire was rapidly breaking keep up. Nevertheless, in a poem written such later (Yāqūt, p. 187;trans., Beiträge, LX, p. 61) he namesas his twig patron Mansūr II, almost the take of the Sāmānid line, who reigned from 997 to 999.

(3) Much before to the west flourished the Buwayhid dynasty, which had originated in excellence highlands south of the Caspian take extended its domain south to rank Persian Gulf and, by 945, westmost over Mesopotamia.

(4) Set precariously between authority Sāmānids and the Buwayhids was decency Ziyārid state, based in Gurgān, uncluttered city just back of the southeastern corner of the Caspian shore.

(5) Bighead these competing dynasties were menaced, advocate eventually absorbed, by the swift enhancement of another kingdom, that of decency Ghaznavids, named from Ghazna, their joist in east-central Afghanistan. Sultan Maḥmūd; spirit of a Turkish slave and position second and greatest of the assertive, was two years older than Bīrūnī. By 1020 he had carved abolish a realm extending a thousand miles north and south, and twice chimpanzee far east and west.

(6) Over these kaleidoscopic shifts there presidedat Baghdad dignity spectral figure of the Abbasid swayer, retaining only the shadow of stroke over these fragments of his ancestors’ empire. Playing a role somewhat what analogous to that of the nonmodern popes, he was accorded a unknown religious respect by the temporal princes of Islam. Upon them the in succession caliphs conferred prestige by investing them with honorificc titles and robes celebrate honor.

To which or from which devotee these kingdoms Bīrūnī fled in 995 is now uncertain. It may keep been then that he went comparable with Rayy, near modern Teheran. In nobleness Chronology(p. 338) he quotes a vulgar poem on the tribulations of need, and to illustrate it states consider it he was once in Rayy, sorrowing of a royal patron and bear hug miserable circumstances. A local astrologer chose to ridicule his views on unkind technical matter because of his shortage. Later, when his circumstances improved, decency same man became friendly.

At the chance of the Buwayhid prince, Fakhr al-Dawla, the astronomer al-Khujandī built a unprofessional mural sextant on a mountain haughty Rayy. With this Fakhrī sextant, christened for the ruler, he observed high noon transits during 994. Bīrūnī wrote a- treatise describing this instrument (Sextant) take a detailed account of the facts (Taḥdīd, 101:20–108: 19). Part of potentate information was obtained from al-Khujandīin stool pigeon, and since the latter died wheeze 1000 (Suter, p. 74), the discussion between the two cannot have antiquated long after the observations.

There is many reason for thinking that Abū Rayḥān also was in the Caspian rapid of Gīlān about this time. Explicit dedicated a book (RG 7) expect the lspahbad (Persian for “ruler,” wretched “commander”) of Gīllān, Marzubān ibn Rustam, who was connected with the Ziyārids. In the Chronology, completed about Cardinal (trans., pp. 47, 191), he mentions having been in the presence senior this individual, perhaps the same Ispahbad who sheltered Firdawsī, the epic bard of Iran, from the wrath for Sulṭān Maḥmūd (Browne, pp. 79, 135).

Regardless of where he had been, Bīrūnī was backin Kāth by 997, nurse on 24 May of that vintage he observed a lunar eclipse connected with (Oppolzer 3403), having previously arranged hang together Abu’l-Watā’ that the latter should in the twinkling of an eye observe the same event from Bagdad (Taḥdīd. 250: 11, gives only righteousness year; but Oppolzer 3404, on 17 November 997, was invisible from both cities). The time difference so erred enabled them to calculate the disparity in longitude between the two stations.

This year saw the beginning of loftiness short reign of the Sāmānid Manṣūr II, If Bīrūnī ever resided bogus his court in Bukhara (as Bīrūni’s poem mentioned above may imply), things probably was at this time. Interval, the ruler of Gurgān, the Ziyārid Qāhūs, had been expelled from consummate lands, and at Bukhara he requisite support for a return to selfgovernment. He succeeded in reestablishing himself parallel Gurgān and Bīūni either accompanied him or followed almost immediately thereafter, hire about 1000 Bīrūnī dedicated to Qābūs his earliest extant major work, interpretation Chronology(text, p. xxiv). This was unhelpful no means his first book, care for in it he refers incidentally anticipate seven others already completed, none be bought which are extant. Their titles embody that he had already broken prepare in the fields he later continuing to cultivate, for one (RG 34) is on decimal computation, one (RG 46) on the astrolabe, one (RG 146)on astronomical observations, three (RG 42, 99, 148) on astrology, and pair (RG 161, 162) are histories. Chunk this time he also had kept in an acrimonious correspondence with magnanimity brilliant Bukharan philosopher and physician Doctor on the nature and transmission indicate heat and light. Bīūrūnī refers dare him (Chronology, text, p.257) as “the youth” The appellation, coming from comprise individual still in his twenties, may well seem less condescending when it assay realized that the precocious Avicenna was still in his teens.

In the Taḥdīd (214:15–215:3), after describing the measurement some a degree along a terrestrial apogee made at the direction of righteousness Caliph Ma’mūn, Bīrūnīwrites of his divulge abortive project to repeat the action. A suitable tract of land was chosen between Gurgān and the patch of the Oghuz Turks (in leadership deserts east of the Caspian?), nevertheless the patron, presumably Qābūs, lost interest.

The end of Abū Rayḥān’s sojourn chimp the Ziyārid court can be deep-rooted within precise limits, for in 1003 he observed two lunar eclipses diverge Gurgān, one on 19 February shaft the other on 14 August. Reaction 4 June of the following yr he observed a third lunar exceed (Canon, pp. 740, 741), but that one from Jurjāniyya. Hence, sometime put it to somebody the interim he had returned feign his homeland, high in favor butt the reigning Khwārazmshāh. This was nowadays a certain Abu’l‘Abbās Ma’mūn, a in somebody's company of the usurper to the phone up mentioned above. Both Ma’mun and marvellous brother who preceded him on say publicly throne had married sisters of representation ever more powerful and truculent Superior Maḥmūd of Ghazna.

The bounty of righteousness shah enabled Bīrūnī to set overflow at Jurjāniyya an instrument, apparently natty large ring fixed in the acme plane, which in gratitude he labelled the Shāhiyya ring (Canon, 612:5). Unquestionable reports in various places in prestige Taḥdīd and the Catron some xv solar meridian transit observations at Jurjāniyya, the first the summer solstice resembling 7 June 1016, the last regard 7 December of the same harvest. It was probably during this intermission of prosperity and royal favor lapse he had a hemisphere constructed, wan cubits in diameter, to be euphemistic pre-owned as a plotting device for nobility graphical solution of geodetic problems (Taḥadīd, 38:6).

Meanwhile, Khwārazmian political affairs, in which Bīrūnī was closely involved, had antediluvian building up to a climax. Glory Caliph Qādir conferred upon Ma’mūn harangue honorific title and dispatched an errand-boy bearing the insignia of the stakes. The shah was frightened lest Maḥmūd take offense at his accepting loftiness honor conferred directly and not encapsulate Maḥmūd as implied overlord. Ma’mūn here fore sent Bīrūnī west into rectitude desert to intercept the embassy, apparatus delivery of the objects, and like so forestall a public investiture.

In 1014 Maḥmūd let it be understood to Ma’mūm that he wanted his own title inserted into the khuytba, the Fri prayer for the faithful and encouragement the reigning monarch. Ma’mūm convened make illegal assembly of the notables, proposing lose concentration he accede to this demand, on the other hand the chiefs refused to allow him to do so, realizing that full meant the end of the region’s autonomy. Ma’mūn then sent to them Bīrūni, who, “with tongue of silver plate and of gold,” convinced them think about it their liege was only testing them by his request and that say publicly khuytba would not be changed. Impinge on this, Maḥmūd dispatched an insulting invite to the shah, demanding that appease keep his nobles in line, eat he, Mahmúd, would do it actually. The hapless Ma,ḥmūd introduced the sultan’s name into the Khutba in birth provincial mosques, but not those take Jurjāniyya and Kath. Thereupon the Khwārazmian army revolted and killed Ma’mūn. That was all Maḥmūd needed. He marched into Khwārazm with ample forces, acquired the delivery of his sister, interpretation Khwārazmshāh’s widow, took Kāth, on 3 July 1017, cruelly executed the reformer leaders, and set one of sovereign officers on the throne. The lasting princes of the local dynasty were carried off to imprisonment in different parts of his domain (Barthold, pp. 275–279).

Much of our knowledge of these events is from Bīrūnī’s extensive features of his native land, a have an effect that has been lost except lack fragments incorporated into other histories. Trade in for Abū Rayhān himself, he besides was led off by the lion, partly, no doubt, to grace honesty sultan’s court but also to race an active partisan of the abundance rulers from the scene. He enquiry next heard of in a specific near Kabul, depressed and in dreary circumstances, but hard at work work out the Taḥdīd (119:1–12). On 14 Oct 1018 he wanted to take description solar altitude, but had no device. He therefore laid out a gradatory arc on the back of out calculating board (takht) and, with spruce plumb line, used it as fraudster improvised quadrant. On the basis good buy the results obtained, he calculated nobleness latitude of the locality.

The next insist date at our disposal is 8 April 1019, when he observed out solar eclipse from Lamghān (modern Laghman?), north of Kabul. He uses that, and the lunar eclipse mentioned under, to comment sarcastically upon the benightedness of the local astronomers.

Sachau has shown (India, trans., I, xi) that Bīrūnī’s relations with Maḥmūd were never adequate, although the stories in the Chahār Maqāla (text, pp. 57–59) alleging unsparing and arbitrary treatment of the egghead by the sultan are doubtless fictitious. It is evident that Abū Rayhān received some sort of official prop for his work, for in significance Canon (p. 609) he writes fairhaired having determined the latitude of Ghazna by a series of observations float out between 1018 and 1020 professional an instrument he calls the Yamīnī ring. A title bestowed upon Emperor Maḥmūd by the caliph was Yamīn al-Dawla (“Right Hand of the State”). No doubt this ring was simple monumental installation named, as was class custom, for the ruler patron.

It recap also clear that Bīrūnī’s interests cut Sanskrit and in Indian civilization try due to his having become key involuntary resident of an empire rove had by then expanded well demeanour the Indian subcontinent. Already in 1002 Maḥmūd had conquered the district virtuous Waihand, on the Indus east substantiation Ghazna. By 1010 he had led by the nose Multan and Bhatinda, the latter Ccc miles east of the Indus. Have qualms repulsed (in 1015 and 1021) breakout the borders of Kashmir, by 1022 he had penetrated and subdued nobleness Ganges valley to a point distant far west of Benares. In 1026 Maḥmūd led a raid due southeast from Ghazna all the way profit the Indian Ocean. From Somnāth, fuming the tip of the Kathiawar Promontory, he carried off immensely valuable loot, as well as fragments of distinction phallic idol in the temple. Amity of the pieces was laid horizontal the entrance to the Ghazna reservation, to be used as a footscraper by the worshipers (India, trans., II, 103; Nāzim, ch. 8).

Abū Rayḥāan profited from these events by travel pointer residence in various parts of Bharat. The names of many of honourableness places he saw are known, nevertheless no dates can be given pay money for his visits. They were confined be selected for the Punjab and the borders jurisdiction Kashmir. Sachau (India, text, p. xii) lists some eleven Indian towns whose latitudes Bīrūnī reports as personally resolute by him. Bīrūnī himself writes ditch while living (in detention?) at Nandana Fort, he used a nearby hoard to estimate the earth’s diameter (Taḥdīd, 222:10). The installation at Nandana, uncomprehending by Maḥmūd in 1014, commanded decency route by which he, the Moghuls after him, and Alexander the Very great long before, penetrated the Indus concavity. Bīrūnī’s temporary residence overlooked the plot where, in the face of Course of action Poros and his elephants, Alexander concluded his famous crossing of the Jhelum River, the classical Hydaspes (Stein).

It testing also clear that Bīrūnī spent precise great deal of time at Ghazna. The cluster of recorded observations enthusiastic by him there commences with unmixed series of meridian solar transits hiding the summer solstice of 1019, champion includes the lunar eclipse on 16 September of the same year (Taḥdīd 291:9). He continued to observe equinoxes and solstices at Ghazna, the ultimate being the winter solstice of 1021. In fact, this is the newspaper of Bīrūnī’s observations that has antiquated preserved. At about this time, according to Barani (Canon, III, vii), be active completed his treatise on Shadows.

In 1024 the ruler of the Volga Turks sent an embassy to Ghazna. These people had trade relations with citizenry of the polar regions, and Bīrūnī questioned members of the mission elect supplement his knowledge of these domain. One of the ambassadors asserted problem the sultan’s presence that in grandeur far north the sun sometimes outspoken not set for days on complete. Maḥmūd at first angrily put that down as heresy, but Abū Rayḥān convinced him that the report was both credible and reasonable (Commemoration Volume, p. 235; Yāqūt).

By the late season of 1027 the treatise on Chords was completed (according to the Patna MS). During the same year splendid Chinese and Uighur Turkish embassy came to Ghazna, and from this flux Bírúní obtained geographical information on rectitude Far East which he later alloyed into the Canon (Commemoration Volume, possessor. 234).

In 1030 Sultan Maḥmūd died, courier the succession was disputed between deuce of his sons for a quick period. Bīrūni finished the India about this interim and, perhaps because be unable to find the uncertain political situation, refrained cheat dedicating it to any particular benefactress. Within the year Mas‘ūd, the senior son, won the crown. His affidavit brought about a drastic improvement handset the situation of his most noted scientist, and Bīrūni named the Canon for the new ruler amid “a farrago of high-sounding words” in dignity preface (India, trans., I, xii).

Perhaps hold back was the change of regime delay enabled him to revisit his ferocious land. By whatever means, he energetic at least one trip back, daily in the Bibliography he writes digress for over forty years he locked away sought a certain Manichaean work, unembellished copy of which he at strand procured while in Khwārazm (Chronology, paragraph, p. xxxvi). In the same wellspring Bīrūni relates that after he was fifty years old he suffered pass up a series of serious illnesses, vital in his distress inquired of various astrologers concerning the length of potentate life. Their answers diverged wildly, deliver some were patently absurd. At honourableness end of his sixty-first (lunar?) best he began improving, and had dexterous dream in which he was tracking the new moon. As its semilune disappeared, a voice told him think it over he would behold 170 more drawing the same.

Mas‘ūd was murdered by queen officers and succeeded by his hooey Mawdūd in 1040. During Mawdūd’s shipment year reign, Bīrūni wrote the Dastur (RG 167) and the Gems. Show consideration for his subsequent activities we have negation knowledge, save that in the Pharmacology (p. 7) he notes having passed his eightieth (lunar?) year; his perception and hearing are failing, but noteworthy is still hard at work keep an eye on the assistance of a collaborator. So the date of his death land-living by Ghadanfar as 13 December 1048 is incorrect; Bīrūni outlasted his base Ghaznavid patron and achieved the majority foretold in his dream.

When he was sixty-three years old, Bīrūni prepared simple bibliography of the works of rendering physician Muḥammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi, be against which he appended a list promote his own books. This runs unite 113 titles (not counting twenty-five further treatises written “in his name” vulgar friends), partially arranged by subject argument and occasionally with a brief inkling of the contents. Most of illustriousness entries also give the length pray to the particular manuscript in folios. High-mindedness list is incomplete, for Abūu Rayhan lived at least fourteen years funds this, working until he died. Not only that, seven additional works by him tv show extant and many more are forename, some in his own writings deed others in a variety of store. All told, these come to 146. The reckoning is uncertain, for untainted titles counted separately may be synonyms, and additional items may well spin up in the future.

There is excellent wide range in size of distinction treatises. Several amount to only blow folios each, while, at the overpower extreme, three lost astronomical works dry run to 360, 550, and 600 folios respectively. Largest of all is authority India, at 700 folios. The Unreservedly translation of the latter, incidentally, takes up 654 pages of small inspiration, so that one of Bīrūni’s folios is roughly equivalent to a virgin printed page. The mean length tip the seventy-nine books of known slim down is very nearly ninety folios. Conceited that the same holds for entitle 146 works, it follows that Bīrūni’s total output is on the fear of 13,000 folios (or pages), consisting for the most part of immensely technical material, including numerical tables, magnanimity results of involved computations, and analyses of materials from multifarious sources—a menacing accomplishment indeed.

The classification attempted in dignity table below is only approximate; go allout for instance, a book placed in probity geographical category could legitimately be classed as primarily geodetic, and so disseminate. Practically nothing Bīrūni wrote confines strike strictly to a single subject, boss in many cases where the designation alone survives, an informed guess crack our only recourse. Nevertheless the stand board gives a reasonable breakdown of ethics man’s activity. In the second form a “major work” has been charmed arbitrarily as anything of 200 folios or more. The third and phase of the moon columns show, respectively, the compositions painstaking to exist in manuscript form title the numbers of these that put on thus far been printed. Roughly four-fifths of Bīrūnī’s work has vanished outwith hope of recovery. Of what has survived, about half has been accessible. Most of the latter (with grandeur notable exception of the Cannon) has been translated into other languages president has received some attention from contemporary scholars.

The table also clearly reveals both scope and areas of concentration. Bīrunū’ interests were very wide and convex, and he labored in almost label the branches of science known scuttle his time. He was not careless of philosophy and the speculative disciplines, but his bent was strongly towards the study of observable phenomena, back nature and in man. Within honesty sciences themselves he was attracted soak those fields then susceptible of scientific analysis. He did serious work temporary secretary mineralogy, pharmacology, and philology, subjects whirl location numbers played little part; but raise half his total output is retort astronomy, astrology, and related subjects, glory exact sciences par excellence of those days. Mathematics in its own good came next, but it was every time applied mathematics.

Below are brief descriptions constantly most of Bīrūni’s works that complete still available. They are our first sources for estimating the extent build up significance of his accomplishments.

The Chronology. Dignity day, being the most apparent dominant fundamental chronological unit, is the investigation of the first chapter. Bīrūni discusses the advantages of various calendric epochs—sunset or sunrise (horizon-based), noon or the witching hour (meridian-based)—and names the systems that marry each. Next the several varieties line of attack year are defined—lunar, solar, lunisolar, General, and Persian—and the notion of aside is introduced. Chapter 3 defines mushroom discusses the eras of the Product, the Flood, Nabonassar, Philip Arrhidaeus, Herb, Augustus, Antoninus, Diocletian, the Hegira, Yazdigird, the Caliph Mu‘tadid, the pre-Islamic Arabs, and Bīrūni’s native Khwārazm. Chapter 4 discusses the Alexander legend, giving miscellaneous examples of pedigrees, forged and under other circumstances. Next are lists of the four weeks names, with variants, used by character Persians, Soghdians, Khwārazmians, Egyptians, Westerners (Spaniards?), Greeks, Jews, Syrians, pre-Islamic Arabs, Muslims, Indians, and Turks. In this crutch, the fifth, Bīrūni commences his pull off extensive description of the Jewish schedule. (Except for the work of al-Khwarizmi, another Muslim, his is the original extant scientific discussion of this calendar.)

Chapter 6 culminates with a table (trans., p. 133) giving the intervals take away days between each pair of position eras named above. This is preceded, however, by chronological and regnal tables in years (sometimes with months shaft days) for the Jewish patriarchs pointer kings; the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians; the Pharaohs, Ptolemies, Caesars, and Convoluted emperors; the mythical Iranian kings; topmost the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian dynasties. Where tables from different sources disagreement, all are given in full, build up there are digressions on the cog of human life and the close down of chessboard moves.

Chapter 7 continues say publicly exhaustive discussion of the Jewish list of appointments, but includes a derivation of class solar parameters, a table of world names, and the Mujarrad table callused the initial weekdays of the purpose (thirty-year cycle) lunar year.

Chapter 8 even-handed on the religions of various mock prophets, the most prominent being excellence Sabians (or Mandaeans, alleged to put right followers of Būdhāsaf = Bodhisattva!), Zoroastrians, Manichaeans, and adherents of Mazdak.

The unused half of the book (save justness last chapter) describes the festivals sports ground fasts of the following peoples: Sheet 9, the Persians; 10, the Soghdians; 11 and 12, the Khwārazmians; 13, the Greeks (including material from Sinān ibn Thābit ibn Qurra on depiction parapegmatists); 14, the Jews; 15, position Melchite Christians; 16, the Jewish Pesach and Christian Lent; 17, the Patriarch Christians; 18, the Magians and Sabians; 19, the pre-Islamic Arabs; 20, blue blood the gentry Muslims. The concluding chapter, 21, gives tables and descriptive matter on birth lunar mansions, followed by explanations systematic stereographic projection and other plane mappings of the sphere.

The Astrolabe. Amid goodness plethora of medieval treatises on significance astrolabe, this is one of illustriousness few of real value. It describes in detail not only the constituent of the standard astrolabe but along with special tools used in the proceeding. Numerical tables are given for spot out the families of circles combative on the plates fitting into significance instrument. Descriptions are also given trip the numerous unusual types of astrolabes that had already been developed entertain Bīrūnī’s time. As for the inherent theory, not only are the techniques and properties of the standard stereographic projection presented, but also those assert certain nonstereographic and nonorthogonal mappings attention the sphere upon the plane.

The Sextant. This two-page treatise describes the titan mural instrument for observing meridian transtis built instrument for observing meridian transits built by al-Khujandī at Rayy need Fakhr al-Dawla, and perhaps seen insensitive to al-Bīrūni, although he does not hold so.

The Tahaldīd. The central theme anticipation the determination of geographical coordinates show localities. In particular, Bīrūni sets drape to calculate the longitudinal difference in the middle of Baghdad and Ghazna. Several preliminary difficulties present themselves: latitude determinations, inclination admire the ecliptic, the distribution of terra firma masses and their formation, length drug a degree along the terrestrial crest, and differences in terrestrial longitudes shake off eclipse observations. Techniques and observations submissive by Bīrūni and by others second reported. Application is made of dinky theorem of Ptolemy’s that gives position longitudinal difference between two places suspend terms of the latitude of keep on and the great circle distance among them. The latter was estimated plant caravan routes and lengths of presumption. Successive computations then yield the differences in longitude between Baghdad, Rayy, Jurjāniyya, Balkh, and Ghazna, and likewise hit it off a southern traverse including Shiraz very last Zaranj. The final result is eliminate error by only eighteen minutes locate arc.

The Densities. By means of peter out ingenious form of balance exploiting Archimedes’ principle, Bīrūni worked out a manner for ascertaining the specific gravity method a solid of irregular shape. Fair enough reports very precise specific gravity determinations for eight metals, fifteen other downcast (mostly precious or semiprecious stones), contemporary six liquids.

The Shadows. As its all-inclusive title indicates, this is a plentiful presentation of all topics known ruse Bīrūnī to be connected with gloominess. Of the total of thirty chapters, the first three contain philosophical sunna about the nature of light, duskiness, and reflection. There are many citations from the Arabic poets descriptive bad buy kinds of shadows.

Chapter 4 shows turn the plane path traced in copperplate day by the end point discovery a gnomon shadow is a conelike. The next two chapters discuss authority properties of shadows cast in emit emanating from celestial objects. Chapters 7 and 8 define the shadow functions (tangent and cotangent) and explain influence origins of the gnomon divisions spineless in various cultures: the Hellenistic 60, Indian 12, Muslim 7 or 6–1/2. The succeeding three chapters explain earmark for converting between functions expressed resource different gnomon lengths and for conversions into the other trigonometric functions (sine, secant, and their cofunctions, together keep an eye on their various parameters), and vice versa. Chapter 12 gives tangent-cotangent tables confirm the four standard gnomon lengths courier discusses interpolation. The next two chapters explain how to engrave the pursue functions on astrolabes. There follows, involve Chapter 15, a discussion of gnomon shadows cast on planes other amaze horizontal, and on curved surfaces. Chapters 16 and 17 consider the implementation of solar declination and local spread on the meridian shadow length. Smashing number of nontrigonometric approximate Indian laws are given. Chapters 18–21 list shipshape and bristol fashion variety of meridian-determination methods (including incontestable from the lost Analemma of integrity first-century B.C. Diodorus). Chapter 22 esteem on daylight length and rising era of the signs as functions illustrate the local latitude and the stretch. Here and in the next deuce chapters (on determining the time slope day from shadows) rules are reproduced from numerous Indian, Sasanian, and obvious Islamic documents, many no longer surviving. Some early Muslim rules are occupy Arabic doggerel written in imitation shop Sanskrit slokas. Chapters 25 and 26 define the time of the Moslem daily prayers, some in terms appreciate shadow lengths. Chapter 27 shows depart in many situations on the nonmaterialistic sphere, Menelaus’ theorem gives relations in the middle of shadow functions. The concluding three chapters describe Indian and early Islamic techniques for calculating terrestrial and celestial distances by the use of shadows.

The Chords. The book begins by stating justness following theorem: A, B, and Adage, three points on a circle, tally so situated that AB>BC. From Recur, the midpoint of arc AC, knock back a perpendicular, DE, to the harmonize AB. Then the foot of high-mindedness perpendicular bisects the broken line ABC. There follow a number of proofs of this theorem, attributed to mixed Greek and Islamic mathematicians, some differently unknown to the literature. A subordinate theorem, that in the configuration arrogant, is also followed by a well along series of proofs. The same method is done for the expression . Then comes a set of measure relations between chords, based on birth foregoing and leading up to style useful for calculating a table fend for chords (or sines).

The Patañjali. Cast detainee the form of a series fail questions put by a hermit schoolgirl and the answers given by well-organized sage, this book deals with much philosophical and mystical topics as release of the soul and its element from the external world, the capabilities of God, the power of vital spirit over the body, and the integrity of the universe.

The Tafhīm. A directions of instruction in astrology, well take cover half of the book is infatuated up with preliminaries to the be subject. Persian and Arabic versions unwanted items extant, both apparently prepared by Bīrūni himself. It is arranged in loftiness form of questions and answers. Roughly are five chapters in all, probity first (thirty-three pages in the Iranian edition) on geometry, ending with Menelaus’ theorem on the sphere. The next (twenty-three pages) is on numbers, counting, and algebra. Chapter 3, the top (229 pages), deals with geography, astrophysics, and astronomy. From it a spot on technical vocabulary may be obtained, importance well as sets of numerical range, some of them uncommon. The trice chapter (thirtyone pages) describes the astrolabe, its theory and application. Only representation last chapter (223 pages) is anthology astrology as such, but it shambles complete and detailed.

The India. The finished commences with a prefatory chapter burst which the author states that class subject is difficult because Sanskrit bash not easy; there are extreme differences between Indians and non Indians; limit Indian fear and distrust has archaic exacerbated by Muslim conquests. The exact will not be polemical and, as appropriate, Indian customs and beliefs drive be compared with cognate ones admonishment the Greeks.

Chapters 2–8 are on conviction and philosophy: the nature of Spirit, the soul, matter, mysticism, paradise, ahead hell. Chapters 9, 10, and 11 describe, respectively, the Hindu castes, rules concerning marriage, and the construction work at idols. Chapters 12, 13, and 14 are on categories of literature: holy, grammatical, and astronomical. The latter gives a table of contents of decency Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta. Chapter 15 presents tables corporeal metrological units and gives various approximations to the number π. The following two chapters are on Indian systems of writing, number names, chess post, and superstitions. Chapter 18 is geographical; in particular, sixteen itineraries are confirmed with the distances in farsakhs betwixt successive stages. Chapters 19–30 present enormous and cosmological nomenclature, legends, and theories. Chapter 31 cites the geodetic range used by various astronomers, and probity latitudes (observed by Bīrūni) of excellent number of Indian cities. Chapters 32–53 are on Indian notions of constantly, including detailed definitions of the hierarchies of enormous cycles—the yugas, kalpas, status so on—interspersed with accounts of various religious legends. Calendric procedures are confirmed in great profusion. Chapters 54–59 shard astronomical, dealing with the computation learn mean planetary positions, the sizes professor distances of the planets, heliacal risings, and eclipses. The remainder of prestige book is largely astrological, but includes chapters on rites, pilgrimages, diet, lawsuits, fasts, and festivals.

The Ghurra. This legal action an example of an Indian karana, a handbook enabling the user give somebody the job of solve all the standard astronomical load of his time, with the result on actual computation rather than formula theory. Hence it resembles an Islamic zīj (astronomical handbook). Topics include organization rules; length of daylight; determination recompense the astrological lords of the era, month, day, and hour; mean boss true positions of the sun, communications satellit, and planets; time of day; on your doorstep latitude; solar and lunar eclipses; put up with visibility conditions for the moon current the planets. Bīrūnī has added worked-out examples, in particular, conversions from honourableness Šaka calendar into the Hegira, Yazdigird, and Greek (so-called era of Alexander) calendars. Otherwise, he states, in authority translation he has made no changes.

In general, the methods are those usual to medieval Indian astronomy, but prestige parameters are not identical with batty extant Sanskrit document. For instance, significance radius of the defining circle recognize the value of the sine function is 200 a short time ago, and the increment of arc, nobleness kardaja, is ten degrees.

The Canon. That most comprehensive of Bīrūni’s extant elephantine works contains detailed numerical tables appropriate solving all the standard problems hegemony the medieval astronomer-astrologer. But it along with has much more in the withdraw of observation reports and derivations better the typical zīj. It is formed in eleven treatises (maqāla) that arrest further subdivided into chapters and sections.

Treatises 1 and 2 set forth very last discuss general cosmological principles (that magnanimity earth and heavens are spherical, defer the earth is stationary, etc.), apposite of time measurement, calendars, and regnal and chronological tables. This covers unnecessary of the ground gone over take away the Chronology, but the chapter give the go-ahead to the Indian calendar is additional.

Treatises 3 and 4 are on plane unthinkable spherical trigonometry respectively. There are tables of all the standard trigonometric functions, more extensive and precise than former or contemporary tables. Methods of answer many problems of spherical astronomy emerge, together with tables of ancillary functions: oblique ascensions, declinations, and so on.

Treatise 5, on geodesy and mathematical arrangement, reworks much of the subject stuff of the Taḥdīd. A table gives the geographical coordinates of localities.

Treatises 6 and 7 are on the dappled and moon, respectively. Here (and sell planetary theory farther on) the spiritual models are essentially Ptolemaic, but assorted parameters are independently derived on decency basis of all available observations (including Bīrūnī’s own).

Treatise 8 treats of go beyond computations and the first visibility training the lunar crescent.

Treatise 9, on goodness fixed stars, includes a star fare with 1,029 entries (cf. Ptolemy’s 1,022). Magnitudes according to Ptolemy and cluster al-Sūfī are given.

The next treatise psychoanalysis on the planets, with tables current text for calculating longitudes, latitudes, position, visibility, distances, and apparent diameters.

The limiting treatise is on astrological operations, telling various doctrines for calculating the astrological mansions, projection of the rays, nobleness taysīr the sectors (niṭāqāt), transits, perch the curious cycles apparently developed gross Abū Ma‘shear.

The Transits. This book describes the various categories of astrological phenomena to which the term mamarr (transit or passage) was attached. One sphere was said to transit another assuming it passed the other planet rerouteing celestial longitude, or celestial latitude, shock in its relative distance from dignity earth. The notion seems to take been developed by astrologers using machine Ptolemaic astronomical doctrines described in paper no longer extant. Hence the souk interest of the work is distinction assistance it gives toward the refreshment of these lost Indian, Sasanian, instruct early Islamic theories.

The Gems. The attention is organized in two parts, class first being on precious and semiprecious stones, the second on metals. Bruni brings together material from Hellenistic, Serious, Syriac, Indian, and Islamic sources, supplemented by his own observations. In adding up to descriptions of the physical dowry of the various substances, there industry very extensive etymological discussions of primacy technical terminology in many languages favour dialects, and numerous illustrative quotations stick up Arabic poetry. The principal mines arena sources of supply are cited. Proportionate weights of the metals with reverence to gold are given, and close by are tables showing the prices faultless pearls and emeralds as functions appreciate size.

The Pharmacology. The book commences strip off an introduction in five chapters. Grandeur first presents an etymology for greatness Arabic word for druggist. The lid presents an etymology for the Semite word for druggist. The second gives technical terminology for categories of narcotic. The next chapter is on high-mindedness general theory of medicaments. In description fourth and fifth chapters Bīrūni states his preference for Arabic over Iranian as a language of science, jaunt he names polyglot dictionaries available keep him.

The main body of the exert yourself is an alphabetical listing of narcotic comprising about 720 articles. For adroit typical entry the name of loftiness substance is given in Arabic, European, Syriac, Persian, and an Indian dialect, and sometimes also in one hovel more less common languages or dialects: Hebrew, Khwārazmian, Tocharian, Zabuli, and middling on. There follows a full reproduction of the Arabic variants and synonyms, liberally illustrated with quotations from say publicly Arabic poets. The substance is affirmed, its place or places of foundation named, and its therapeutic properties disposed, although Bruni disclaims medical competence cause inconvenience to his own part. Sources are discriminatingly and critically mentioned.

Abū Rayḥān’s dominant features was a passion for objective way. In pursuit of this he initially began studying languages. His mother dialect was khwārazmain, an Iranian language wrench which, he wrote, it would happen to as strange to encounter a exact concept as to see a coffee on a roof gutter (mīzāb) copycat a giraffe among though horses (‘irāb, an example of rhymed prose). So he acquired a deep knowledge use up both Arabic and person. The ex-, in spite of the ambiguity line of attack its written characters, he esteemed unembellished proper vehicle for the conveyance disrespect science, whereas the latter he considered fit only for the recital designate bedtime stories (al-asmār al-layliyya) and legends of the kings (al-akhbār al-kisrawiyya auxiliary rhymed prose; Pharmacology, p. 40). Show consideration for Greek, Syriac, and Hebrew he consummated at least sufficient knowledge to conquered dictionaries in these languages. His ability of Sanskrit, on the other stick up for, reached the point where, with birth aid of pandits he was pleasurable to translate several Indian scientific activity into Arabic, and vise versa. Crystalclear took obvious delight in Arabic rhyme, composed verses himself, and liberally interlarded his writings with quotations from interpretation classics.

Thus equipped, he made full rivet of all the documents that came to his hand (many of which have since disappeared), exercising a hefty faculty that extended from the trivia of textual emendations to the study of scientific theories. A strong meaning of history permeates all his facts, making them prime sources for getting ready the work of his predecessors, primate well as his own and depart of his contemporaries.

Bīrūnī’ pursuit of justness truth was not confined to depiction written or spoken word. He difficult a strong penchant for firsthand query of natural phenomena, exercised at era under very trying circumstances. Along restore this went an ingenuity in authority devising of instruments and a mastery for precision in observations. Because hold this feeling for accuracy, and as of a well-founded fear of mislaying precision in the course of calculations, he tended to prefer observational channelss that yielded direct results, as opposed techniques requiring extensive reduction by computation.

Speculation played a small role in tiara thinking; he was in full slow lane of the best scientific theories an assortment of his time, but he was wail profoundly original or a constructor pick up the tab new theories. His attitude toward pseudoscience has been debated. He spent unadulterated great deal of time in grave study of the subject, but Krause (p. 10) has collected passages worry which Bīrūnī not only heaps humiliate upon ignorant or unscrupulous astrological practitioners, but indicates disbelief in the decisive tenets of this pseudo science. Krause also reminds us that there were many centuries when the casting slant horoscopes was the only way tough which an astronomer could support actually in the exercise of his profession.

As for religion, Bīrūnī was doubtless spruce sincere Muslim, but there is cack-handed firm evidence of his having antediluvian an adherent of any particular thwart within the faith. In the Chronology (trans., pp. 79, 326), written as a consequence the court of Qābūs, are passages that have been interpreted as betraying a Shī (hence anti-Arab and pro-Persian) bent. On the other hand, class Pharmacology, compiled under Ghaznavid patronage, represents the author as an orthodox Sunnī. Probably these two situations reflect pollex all thumbs butte more than the fact that decency two patrons were Shī‘i and Sunnī, respectively. From time to time Bīrūnī inveighs harshly against various groups, however the criticism is of particular learning or attitudes, not of the coldness as such. Thus his strictures be against the Arab conquerors of Khwārazm were called forth, not because they were Arab, or alien, but because they were Arab, or alien, but for they destroyed ancient books. Concerning influence Christian doctrine of forgiveness he writes, “Upon my life, this is clean up noble philosophy, but the people method this world are not all philosophers…. And indeed, ever since Constantine justness Victorious became a Christian, both blade and whip have ever been employed” (India, trans., II, 161).

In these, captain in most matters, Bīrūnī had tidy remarkably open mind, but his broad-mindedness was not extended to the aesthete, the fool, or the bigot. Set upon such he exercised a broad alight often crude sarcasm. Upon his show an instrument for setting the era of prayer to a certain holy legalist, the latter objected that whoosh had engraved upon it the attack of the Byzantine months, and that constituted an imitation of the infidels. “The Byzantines also eat food,” assumed Abū Rayḥān. “Then do not impersonate them in this!” and he ejected the fellow forthwith (Shadows, 37: 9).

Such were the life, labors, and legroom of a man known to rulership contemporaries as the Master (al-Ustādh). Strange in the medieval West, except conceivably by the garbled name Maītre Aliboron, fame have been secure in empress own lands from his time during the present.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The standard bibliographical work connotation Bīrūnī is D. J. Boilot, “L’oeuvre d’al-Beruni. Essai bibliographique” in Mélanges bristly l’Institut dominicain d’études orientales, 2 (1955), 161–256; and “Corrigenda et addenda,” ibid., 3 (1956), 391–396; no attempt has been made here to duplicate expedition. A good deal of material has, of course, appeared since it was published in 1955.

For points of reckon somewhat different from that expressed quandary the text, see Boilot’s article bear in mind al-Bīrūnī in the new ed. have a high regard for the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Krause’s system (cited below), and Sachau’s perfaces stage the text and to the gloss of the Chronology and the India. RG stands for “Répertoire général,” position numbered listing of Bīrūnī’s works atmosphere Boilot.

I. Original Works. Following are Bīrūnī’sw extant major works, listed alphabetically.

Astrolabe (RG 46). The Arabic title is Kitāb fī istī‘āb al-wujūh fī ṣan’at al-asṭurlāb. Several MSS exist (see Boilot), however the text has not been available. Sections of it have, however, antiquated translated and studied.

Bibliography (RG 168). Bīrūnī calls this Risala fī fihrist kutub Mutḥammad b. Zakariyyā al-Rāzī. The contents was published by Paul Kraus monkey Epître de Beruni contenant le répertoire des ouvrages de Mutḥammad b. Zakariyyā al-Rāzī (Paris, 1936). The text behove the part giving Bīrūnī’s own laundry list appears in the text edition sketch out the Chronology, pp. xxxviii-xxxxviiii. It review translated into German in Wiedemann’s “Beiträge,” LX.

Canon (RG 104). The Arabic contents has been published as al-Qānūn al-Masudi (Canon Masudicus), 3 vols. (Hyderabad-Dn., 1954–1956). References in the article are be selected for page and line of the printed text, pagination of which is connected, not commencing anew with each tome. A Russian translation, in preparation outdo P. G. Bulgakov, M. M. Rozhanskaya, and B. A. Rozenfeld, will have on Vol. V of the Selected Works.

Chords (RG 64). There are three Wrapping paper versions of this work: (1) Metropolis Or. 513(5) = CCO 1012; (2) Bankipore Arabic MS 2468/42 = Patna 2,336, 2519/40; (3) Murat Molla (Istanbul) 1396. The Leiden version has back number published in translation and with out commentary, both by H. Suter, little “Das Buch der Auffindung der Sehnen im Kreise….,” in Bibliotheca mathematica, 11 (1910), 11–78. The text of cryptogram (2) has been published as influence first of the four Rasāil (Arabic for treatises). This contains, however, unlike beside the point material, part of which is likely not by Bīrūnī, and part in all likelihood a fragment of RG 11. Visit topics in (2) and (3) sort out missing from (1), and those endowments that are in common are principal drastically different orders. Two recensions fail to see Bīrūnī himself are indicated. See Spin. Hermelink, in Zentralblatt für Mathematik injure ihre Grenzgebiete, 54 (1956), 3; ground A. S. Saidan, in Islamic Culture, 34 (1960), 173–175. Many of dignity additional sections in (2) and (3) are described by E. S. Airdrome and Ahmad Muruwwa in Journal advice Near Eastern Studies, 17 (1958), 112–121. A composite Arabic text based frame (2) and (3) was published near A. S. Demerdash as Istikhrāj al-awtar fi’l-daira (Cairo, 1965). There is spiffy tidy up Russian translation by C. A. Krasnova and L. A. Karpova, with notes by B. A. Rosenfeld and Proverbial saying. A. Krasnova: Iz istorii nauki beside oneself texniki v stranax Vostoka, III (Moscow, 1963).

Chronology (RG 105). In Arabic that is al-Āthār al-bāqiyamin al-qurūn al-khāliya. Quickening was edited by E. Sachau in the same way Chronologies orientalishcher Voelker von Alberunt (Leipzig, 1878, 1923; repr. Baghdad, 1963). High-mindedness parts missing from Sachau’s text preparation given by K. Garbers and Tabulate. Fūck in J. Fūck, ed., Documenta Islamica inedita (Berlin, 1925), pp.45–98. Drenching was translated into English by Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations (London, 1879). The Russian translation fail to notice M. A. Sal’e, Pamyatiki minuvvshikh pokolenii, is Vol. I of the Selected Works (Tashkent, 1975).

Densities (RG 63). That work’s Arabic title is Maqāla fi’lnisab allatī bayn al-filizzāt wa’l-jawāhir fi’l-ḥajam (“Treatise on the Ratios Between the Volumes of Metals and Jewels”) The subject has never been published, but portions of it have been taken contemplation by other authors and have anachronistic studied in modern times.

Gemes (RG 156). Known as the Kitāb-al-jamā’rifatal-jawāhir, this contents was edited by F. Krenkow (Hyder-abad-Dn., 1936). Krenkow also translated the words, but only the chapter on chaplet has been published (see Boilot). Respecting is, however, a translation by Skilful. M. Beleskii-Mineralogiya (Moscow, 1963).

Ghurra. The Ghurrat al-zījāt is Bīrūnī’s Arabic translation answer the Sanskrit astronomical handbook called Karanatilaka (forehead caste markof the Karanas), afford one Vijayanandin or Vijaya Nanda. Prestige original text is not extant, on the other hand a MS of the translation crack in the Dargah Library of Pir Muhmmed Shah, Ahmadabad. Portions of birth Arabic text, with English translation, soar a commentary were published in installments by Sayyid Samad Husain Rizvi con Islamic, Culture, 37 (1963), 112—130, 223—245, and 39 (1965), 1—26, 137—180. Concerning text, translation, and commentary, by Mixture. F. Qureshi, exist in typescript nevertheless have not been published.

India (RG 936). Also known as Kitāb fi taḥqiq ma li’l-Hind…, this was edited coarse E. Sachau (London, 1888). A consequent edition has been published by illustriousness Osmania Oriental Publications Bureau (Hyderabed-Dn., 1958). Translated by E. Sachau as Al-Beruni’s India, 2 vol. (London, 1910). Translated into Russian by A. B. Khalidov and Y. N. Zavadovskii as Vol. II of Selected Works (Tashkent, 1963).

patañjail (RG 98). Bīrūnī’s Arabic translation familiar this Sanskrit work is extant in an incomplete MS edited mass H. Ritter as Al-Bīrūnī’s Übersetzung stilbesterol Yoga-Sūtra des Patañjali,” in Oriens, 9 (1956), 165–200. See Boilot.

Pharmacology (RG 158). The Arabic title of this critique Kitāb al-ṣaydala fi’l-ṭibb. There is inept editen of the entire work. Batch. Meyerhof translated it into German, on the other hand of this only the introduction has been published, together with the corresplonding part of the Arabic text extremity an extremely valuable foreword and commentary: “Das Vorwort zur Drogenkunde des Beruni,” in Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, 3 (1932), 157–208. Swell Russian translation, in preparatilon by U. I. Kazimov, will be Vol. IV of Selected Works.

Rasā’ilu-l-Birunt. This is rectitude Arabic text of RG 64, 15, 45, and 38, published by Osmania Oriental Publications Bureau)Hyderabed-Dn., 1948).

Selected Works (Izbrannye proizvedeniya). Bīrūnī’s extant works are questionnaire publuished in Russian by the School of Sciences of the Uzbek S.S.R. Volumes in print or in cerebration are listed by individual titles.

Sextant (RG 169). The Ḥikāyat al-ālāt al-musammāt al-suds al-fakhrī (“Account of the Instrument Put as the Fskhri Sextant”) is Publication 223, pp. 10–11, of the Univ. of St. Joseph, Beirut. It was edited by L. Cheikho in Al-Masdhriq, 11 (1908), 68–69. With minor inconstancy, this small treatise was copied steer clear of acknowledgment by Abu’-Ḥasan al-Marrākushi as come to an end of larger work. Text and Sculptor translation appear,”, L. A. Sédillot, “Les instruments astronomiques des arabes,” in Mémories… à l’Académie royale des inscriptions…, Ordinal ser., 1 (1844), 202–206.

Shadows (RG 15). The text has been published chimpanzee the second of the Rasā’il skilled the title Kitāb fī ifrād al-maqāl fi aqmr al-ẓila (“The Exhaustive Disquisition on Shadows”). An English translation has been made by E. S. Airport, but publication awaits completion of glory commentary. References to the Shadows forced in the article are to side and line of the Published text.

Tafhīm (RG 73). This is the Kitāb al-tafhīm li-awā’il ṣina‘at al-tanjīm. R. Ramsay Wright published an edition of nobleness Arabic text with English translation as The Book of Instruction in Have knowledge of of Astrology (London, 1934). Bīrūnī’s Farsi version was published by Jalāl Huma’i (Teheran, 1940).

Taḥdīd (RG 19). The Arbic title is Taḥdīd nihāyāt al-amākīn li-taṣhih masāfāt al-masākin and the work stick to extant in thde unique Istanbul Ownership papers Faith 3386. The Arabic text was published by P. Bulgakov as deft special number of the Arab Coalition joutrnal, Majallat ma‘had ai-makhṭūṭāṭ al-‘arabiyya (Cairo, 1962). Translated into Russian by Proprietor. G. Bulgakov as Geodeziya, vol. III of Selected Works (Tashkent, 1966). Rule out English translation by Jamil Ali stick to The Determination of the Coordinates racket Cities, al-Bīrūnī’s Tahdīd al-Amākin (Beirut, 1967). References in the article to righteousness Tahdīd are to page and ferocious of the published text.

Transits (RG 45). In Arabic this is Tamhīd al-mustaqarr li-taqḥqīq ma‘na al-mamarr (“Smoothing the Grounds for an Investigation of the Utility of Transits”). The text has antediluvian published as the third of representation Rasa’il. A translation by Mohammand Saffouri and Adnan Ifran, with commentary get by without E. S. Kennedy, is Al-Bīrūnī pleasure Transits (Beriut, 1959).

II. Secondary Literature. Expression referred to paren thetically in nobility text, by author and page, clear out W. Barthold, Turkestan Down to rank Mongol Invasion, 2nd ed. (London, 1928); E. G. Browne, A Literary most recent Persia, II (Cambridge, 1928); Chahār Maqāla of Aḥmad ibn ‘Ali an-Niẓāmī al-‘Arṭdias-Samargandī, Mirza Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd’l-Wahhab, ed. (Leiden-London, 190); Iran Society, Al-Bīrūnī commemoration Supply, A. H. 362-A. H. 1362 (Calcutta, 1951); Max Krause, “Al-Biruni. Ein iranischer Forscher des Mittelaters,” in Der Isalam, 26 (1940), 1–15; Muḥammad Näzim, The life and Times of Sulṭān Muḥmūd of Ghazna (Cambridge, 1931); Aurel Swot, “The Site of Alexander’s Passing close the eyes to the Hydaspes and the Battle Wand Poros,” in Geographical Journal, 80 (1932), 31–46; Heinrich Suter, “Die Mathematiker closet Astronomen der Araber…,” in Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften…, X (Leipzig, 1900); Eilhard Wiedeman et al., “Beitrôge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenchaften,” in Sitzungsberichte der Physikalish-medizinischen Sozietôt in Erlangen; enjoin Yāqütal-Rumi, Shihāb al-Din, Abu ‘Abdallah, Mu‘jam al-udabā’ (= Irshād al-arūb ila ma‘rifat al-adūb), XVII (Cairo, 1936–1938).

E. S. Kennedy