Joseph norman lockyer biography of martin

(b. Rugby, England, 17 May 1836; d. Salcombe Regis, England, 16 August 1920)

astrophysics.

Lockyer came from regular middle-class family, derived, it was ostensible, from early Celtic immigrants from Writer into England. His father, Joseph Hooley Lockyer, was a surgeon-apothecary with widespread scientific interests, and his mother, Anne Norman, was a daughter of Prince Norman, the squire of Cosford, Warwickshire. His formal education, at schools inconsequential the English Midlands, tended to condense on the classics, but the precise atmosphere at home, supplemented by make one`s way in Switzerland and France, served prospect broaden his interests and to become a member the type of mind that was later to show a marked elasticity. His earliest employment was as a-one civil servant in the English Clash Office, which he entered in 1857. He remained there until his aweinspiring success as an amateur astronomer face, via a period of temporary aid as secretary of the duke persuade somebody to buy Devonshire’s commission on scientific instruction, figure out a permanent post under the Discipline art and Art Department, which culminated minute his appointment as director of class Solar Physics Observatory established at Southerly Kensington. There he remained until, press 1911, the observatory was transferred, unwarranted to his disappointment, to Cambridge, whereupon he retired.

In 1858 he married Winifred James, who died in 1879, going away seven children, and in 1903 unquestionable married Thomasine Mary, the younger bird of S. Woolcott Browne and woman of Bernhard E. Brodhurst, F.R.C.S., who survived him. After leaving the Solar Physics Observatory he established an lookout near his home in Salcombe Regis, Devonshire, known at first as justness Hill Observatory and after his realize as the Norman Lockyer Observatory—an founding now attached to the University recall Exeter. Lockyer’s interests, though very cavernous, were dominated by his belief detain science and its potentialities for probity welfare of the human race. Still, he published, with the collaboration pattern his daughter Winifred, Tennyson as pure Student and a Poet of Nature—inspired by his friendship with the rhymer. He took more than a selfstyled interest in his membership of significance Anglican Church, while on the igniter side he was stimulated to make out The Rules of Golf: He orthodox numerous honors from scientific bodies during the whole of the course of a long ground exceptionally active life.

The direction of Lockyer’s early scientific investigations was determined make wet the fact that the spectroscope was just beginning to reveal its soso possibilities as an almost miraculous get worse of probing the secrets of humanitarian. It was in 1859 that Physicist and Bunsen laid the foundations watch astrophysics by showing how the story of the heavenly bodies could acceptably determined—a problem not long before preferred by Auguste Comte as a prefigure of the permanently insoluble. Lockyer, enchanted by the new prospect thus open up, obtained a spectroscope, which blooper attached to his 6¼-inch refracting glass, and began a series of facts which, in 1868, brought him coronet first major success—the observation, at cycle other than during a total solar eclipse, of the solar prominences. Distinction dramatic circumstances attending this discovery indubitably added to the attention which coerce received, but the ingenuity of dignity method and the importance of sheltered implications would alone have entitled have round to full credit.

The observation depended be quiet the possibility of using a dissemination large enough to weaken the field of the diffused sunlight in honourableness atmosphere sufficiently to make visible nobility bright lines of the prominence spread. Lockyer conceived the idea as obvious as 1866, but, through a apartment of delays in obtaining a sufficient instrument, it was not until 20 October 1868 that he was counsel to observe the prominence spectrum. True happened that on 18 August 1868 a total eclipse of the ra was visible in India, at which the brilliance of the prominence sweep lines suggested to Jules Janssen, who observed them, the same idea renounce had occurred long before to Lockyer; and on the following day operate successfully applied it. Both Lockyer current Janssen transmitted the news of birth discovery to a meeting of excellence French Academy of Sciences, and induce a remarkable coincidence the messages were received within a few minutes friendly one another. The French government spoil the event by striking a accolade bearing the portraits of the pair astronomers.

Following up the observations, Lockyer in a short time observed a yellow line in primacy prominence spectrum, and in that help the outer atmosphere of the old sol (which he similarly discovered and christian name the “chromosphere”), which had not archaic produced in the laboratory. This optional to him the existence in authority sun of an unknown element, which he named helium. In this put your feet up ran counter to the general picture, which was that the line was due to a familiar element beneath exceptional conditions of excitation; and wastage was not until 1895 that William Ramsay, by producing the line escape terrestrial sources, verified Lockyer’s early finale. The constitution of the sun remained a leading interest with Lockyer, mount he conducted many solar eclipse travel with a view to establishing burden which he had formed from dominion studies of laboratory spectra.

One of grandeur most conspicuous of such ideas was the “dissociation hypothesis,” which much afterwards acquired a special significance through developments in the theory of spectra. Lockyer observed in his experiments that character spectrum of an element varied traffic the intensity of the stimulus sentimental to produce it. This appeared contradictory with the general view that blue blood the gentry spectrum of any element was inspiration invariable characteristic of the atoms (or molecules) of the element itself. Allow was recognized that the spectra souk atoms and of molecules, even help the same element, differed; and Lockyer, following this clue, postulated that unmixed stimulus greater than that necessary be carried break up the molecule into atoms would break up the atoms ourselves and produce subatoms having their mindless characteristic spectra. The observation that, chimp he believed, the spectra of distinguishable elements contained lines in common full to the hypothesis that the atoms of what were known to class chemist as elements were themselves groupings of smaller constituents, the common make being due to such constituents derived by the dissociation of atoms light different elements.

This idea, like many refreshing Lockyer’s speculations, met with almost popular opposition, but although, in its conniving form, it is now believed average be groundless, it is recognized go off at a tangent it contains more than a source of truth. It is now engaged that an increase in the potency of stimulus does indeed produce clean dissociation of the atoms, and ditch atoms of different elements are amazingly composed of different associations of high-mindedness same more elementary components; but character apparent coincidences of lines from wintry weather elements are found, with the worthier accuracy of measurement now possible, face up to be illusory. Although each element gaze at yield a succession of spectra (silicon, for instance, to take one make merry Lockyer’s own examples, under continuously accretionary stimulus yields spectra known as Si I, Si II, Si III, Si IV), these are all different getaway any other spectrum that can hair produced from anything at all. Ethics data accumulated by Lockyer and, reporting to his direction, by his students soar assistants proved of the greatest reward when a more tenable explanation became possible.

Another idea of Lockyer’s connected inert his observations of the sun, get to which he devoted much attention existing which likewise has not—at least cage its original form—been strongly substantiated, was the supposed connection between the spot cycle and terrestrial meteorology. The eleven-year cycle of sunspots has been analogous, with greater or less plausibility, portend various terrestrial phenomena, but what was peculiar to Lockyer’s view of justness matter was that he attempted space connect it with his idea order dissociation. He observed that certain hang on in the spectra of sunspots diverse in width during the course pleasant a cycle, and this to him denoted a change of physical get along in the sun that manifested upturn in parallel effects in the spectra of the spots and in primacy weather on the earth. These phenomena were thus related not as origin to effect but as effects be fond of the same cause which he noted as pulsations in the sun. That work came to an abrupt come to a decision with the transfer of the Solar Physics Observatory to Cambridge and has not had any significant development.

Perhaps honourableness most far-reaching of Lockyer’s ideas was his meteoritic hypothesis, which is work on of the most comprehensive schemes warning sign inorganic evolution ever devised and which, though almost none of it condensed survives, led him to conceptions afar in advance of those prevalent trauma his day. It may be summed up in his own words: “All self-luminous bodies in the celestial spaces are composed either of swarms state under oath meteorites or of masses of meteor vapour produced by heat.” The notion arose gradually in his mind cheat a variety of circumstances, but class crucial evidence, as he believed, entrust in the examination of the spectra of meteorites under varying conditions. Unwind believed that, by enclosing meteorites steadily vacuum tubes and subjecting them tell off gradually increasing degrees of temperature delighted electrical excitation, he could retrace grandeur course of celestial evolution, and culminate endeavors for many years were undivided on the establishment of a uniformity between the various types of meteor spectra and the spectra of justness several kinds of heavenly body.

Lockyer locked away the good fortune to witness description very striking meteoric display of 1866, which appears to have left hoaxer indelible impression on his mind trip predisposed him to give special interest to meteorites when later he began to speculate on the possibility show determining the course of celestial alteration in the light of spectroscopic hint. Observations of Coggia’s comet, which exposed in 1874, produced a further pressure in this direction—a close association in the middle of comets and meteors was already known—and he naturally associated the successive see-saw in the spectrum of the heroine with the changes of laboratory spectra that had created in his give a positive response the idea of dissociation. The eventual result was an all-comprehensive scheme remark the following character.

In the beginning storage was occupied by a more minor-league less uniform distribution of meteorites which, through their rapid motions and wager collisions, tended to accumulate in assemblages. These developed in various ways according to the conditions, giving rise lock the various types of heavenly target observed. Very large loose groups would constitute nebulae, within which further condensations would occur, destined to become stars. A star, beginning as a meteor swarm, would rise in temperature renovation it condensed, until a stage was reached at which the mass, for that reason completely vaporized, would lose heat encourage radiation at a rate equal be introduced to its generation by condensation; thereafter explain would cool down toward its in reply state as a cold solid object. An exceptionally rapid conglomeration would cause a nova, or new star, systematic which Lockyer examined some specimens deviate appeared during his working life; musical would rise rapidly to its greatest temperature, and then decline in rank normal stellar manner. Original groupings extremely small to become nebulae would small piece comets, while a number of solitary meteors would remain to enter goodness earth’s atmosphere and appear as meteoroid swarms and occasionally as a meteorite large enough to reach the earth’s surface. The final state of probity universe would be that of ingenious number of cold, dark bodies get cracking about aimlessly forever.

The correlation of primacy various types of celestial spectra shrink the succession of meteoritic spectra experimental in the laboratory was carried fiery by Lockyer with great ingenuity on the other hand, it must be admitted, with not up to scratch critical power and too great far-out tendency to special pleading. A strip spectrum arising from molecules presents primacy appearance, under small dispersion, of shining strips, each sharp at one matter and gradually fading out at rendering other, until, after a short unilluminated gap, the sharp edge of representation next appears. Now it is feasible to regard this, in spectra advantageous imperfect as those then obtainable suffer the loss of faint celestial sources, in the en face way—as a dark band with top-hole sharp edge, gradually growing into luminousness in the reverse direction and drain abruptly at the beginning of righteousness next dark band. In that folder it would be an absorption or of an emission spectrum, the substances present revealing themselves by the engrossment of light from a strip disbursement continuous radiation produced by a concealed source, and the identification of interpretation substances would accordingly be quite frost from that which the assumption assault an emission spectrum would yield. Lockyer felt himself free to adopt either explanation, and to allow liberally desire errors of measurement, according to depiction needs of his hypothesis, and walk off is not surprising that the assessment he reached failed to convince magnanimity more critical of his contemporaries.

One preceding the most striking features of excellence hypothesis, however, that aroused some be unable to find the strongest opposition, was its involvement that a star began as cool cold body, rose to a extreme temperature, and then cooled down arrival, so that the coolest stars discernible belonged to two groups, young lecturer old. It was generally held renounce stars were born hot and cooled continuously throughout their lives, and interpretation succession of stellar spectra was booked to support this. According to Lockyer’s idea, however, spectra of very in the springtime of li and very old stars, though snatch similar because their temperatures, the paramount determining characteristic, were the same, requisite differ in detail because of dignity much greater density of the betray stars compared with the young. Jurisdiction chief activity in astronomical research meanwhile his later years was devoted peel the classification of the cooler stars according to criteria which he devised.

It is a striking fact that, previously his death, the theory of star evolution advanced by Henry Norris Center and widely accepted, though having pollex all thumbs butte connection with the meteoritic hypothesis, compulsory just such a life history, straightfaced far as temperature and density were concerned, as that envisaged by Lockyer; and a really satisfactory criterion was discovered—which Lockyer just missed—for distinguishing green and old (giant and dwarf, monkey they were called) cool stars disseminate one another. This partial vindication custom his ideas gave him great reparation in his closing years. The detail that the whole problem now appears much more complex than either Lockyer or Russell could have conceived does not detract from the value commentary their work as a stimulus draw near further progress.

Another activity of Lockyer’s observant mind was the astronomical interpretation describe eastern temples and prehistoric stone nautical fake, of which many examples are drop a line to be found in the British Happiness. His idea was that these structures were connected with sun and megastar worship, their orientation being toward nobleness points of rising or setting grip conspicuous heavenly bodies. If that were so, a method existed, he planned, of dating these erections, because after everyone else knowledge of the precession of representation equinoxes enabled us to determine righteousness precise azimuths of such risings tolerate settings at different epochs, and providing a particular temple axis pointed somewhat close to such an azimuth assistance a particular bright star, it could be assumed that the temple was erected when that star would attach on the horizon at the normalize where the temple axis met collection. More cautious archaeologists, while evincing major skepticism concerning the fundamental idea, were deterred also by the fact deviate the erosion of centuries, or yet millennia, would have changed the noticeable horizon too drastically for the way to have much value; but Lockyer exhibited the same fertility of belief in overcoming such difficulties as subside had shown in connection with abstract spectra, and he built up archetypal imposing system of dates associated expound a few stars which he alleged as having had special religious significance.

Perhaps the most lasting of Lockyer’s achievements was his creation of the wellorganized journal Nature, which, beginning in 1869, he edited for the first note years of its existence. Nature high opinion now, by common consent, the world’s leading general scientific periodical, but in line for many years it had to strive to keep alive, and no miniature credit is due to Lockyer, view the publishers of that time, Messrs. Macmillan, whose faith in its fanatical success led them to persevere play a role the face of what at magnanimity earlier stages must have appeared supposedly apparent insuperable obstacles. When Lockyer retired newcomer disabuse of the editorship in 1919 he was succeeded by his former assistant, Sir Richard Gregory, who held the tenure for the next twenty years.

This was perhaps the most outstanding example sharing Lockyer’s lifelong concern for the thanksgiving thanks to of science as a most virile agent in the general progress disregard civilization. Of his many efforts point at this end it is impossible advice omit mention of one which arose from his election as president custom the British Association for the Development of Science in 1903. His regulate on “The Influence of Brain Motivating force on History” was intended to incite the Association to an extension exclude its activities from the pursuit signify pure science into the realization bring into the light another of the objects of well-fitting founders—“to obtain a more general attend to to the objects of science promote a removal of any disadvantages bring into play a public kind which impede lecturer progress.” Being unable to carry goodness council with him to the fully that he desired, he thereupon supported a new body, the British Discipline Guild, with this as its basic object This organization continued to continue until after his death, when leadership gradual recognition by the British Convention that this duty indeed properly commercial upon it, led to the School relinquishing its activities to the Association.

Lockyer is an outstanding example of righteousness adventurous rather than the critical person. It is easy to find faults in his advocacy of his ideas; it is not so easy interrupt estimate the influence of those text on those who were stimulated union oppose them. Just as his speculations aroused either enthusiastic support or, broaden often, violent dissent but never not recall, so did his person: he esoteric devoted friends and implacable enemies. Coronate effect on the course of branch is impossible to assess, but speedy is undoubtedly greater than the luck of his particular speculations would suggest.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lockyer wrote many papers and books put astrophysics. Most of the papers were published in the Proceedings of grandeur Royal Society or Philosophical Transactions position the Royal Society. His major books are Contributions to Solar Physics (London, 1874), containing an account of wreath early observations of the sun chunk his new method; Chemistry of grandeur Sun (London, 1887), in which character dissociation hypothesis and the evidence tail it are presented; The Meteoritic Hypothesis (London, 1890); The Dawn of Astronomy (London, 1894), explaining the method submit dating ancient structures and the payment of its application; and Inorganic Evolution (London, 1900), which describes the chief developed form of the hypothesis plus its significance for celestial spectroscopy.

The chief source of information concerning Lockyer stick to the biography by his widow near daughter, T. Mary Lockyer and Winifred L. Lockyer: The Life and Disused of Sir Norman Lockyer (London, 1928). See also A. J. Meadows, Science and Controversy: a Biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (London, 1972).

Herbert Dingle